Theories of leadership:

Theories of leadership: Introduction â€Å"The term leadership is a word taken from the common vocabulary and incorporated into the technical vocabulary of a scientific discipline without being precisely redefined. As consequences, it carries extraneous connotations that create ambiguity of meaning (Janda, 1960). Additional confusion is caused by the use of other imprecise terms such as power, authority, management, administration, control and supervision to describe similar phenomena. An observation by Bennis (1959, p. 259) is as true today as when he made it many years ago: Always, it seems, the concept of leadership eludes us or turns up in another form to taunt us again with its slipperiness and complexity. So we have invented an endless proliferation of terms to deal with it. and still the concept is not sufficiently defined.† â€Å"Most definition of leadership reflect the assumption that involves a process whereby intentional influences is exerted over other people to guide, structure, and facilitate acti vities and relationships in a group or organisation. The numerous definitions of leadership appear to have little else in common. They differ in many respects, including who exerts influence, the intended purpose of the influence, the manner in which influence is exerted, and the outcome of the influence attempt. The differences are not just t a case of scholarly nit picking; they reflect deep disagreement about identification of leaders and leadership processes.†(Gary Yukl, 2010) Theories of leadership: Douglas McGregor described Theory X and Theory Y in his book, The Human Side of Enterprise. Theory X and Theory Y each represent different ways in which leaders view employees. Theory X managers believe that employees are motivated mainly by money, are lazy, uncooperative, and have poor work habits. Theory Y managers believe that subordinates work hard, are cooperative, and have positive attitudes. Theory X is the traditional view of direction and control by managers. It is the nature of average human being who dislikes doing work and will avoid if he or she can. Because of this human characteristic of dislike of work, most people must be controlled, directed, and threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organizational objectives. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, and has relatively little ambition, wants security above all. Theory Y is the view that individual and organizational goals can be integrated. The expenditures of physical and mental effort in work are as natural as play or rest. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing out effort toward organizational objectives. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but also to seek responsibility. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems in widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population. Under the condition of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized. Fred E. Fiedlers contingency theory postulates that there is no best way for managers to lead. Situations will create different leadership style requirements for a manager. The solution to a managerial situation is contingent on the factors that impose on the situation. For example, in a highly routinized (mechanistic) environment where repetitive tasks are the norm, a certain leadership style may result in the best performance. The same leadership style may not work in a very dynamic environment. Fiedler looked at three situations that could define the condition of a managerial task: Leader member relations: Compatibility between the manager and the employees? The task structure: Is the job highly structured, fairly unstructured, or somewhere in between? Position power: How much authority does the manager possess? Managers were rated as to whether they were relationship oriented or task oriented. Task oriented managers tend to do better in situations that have good leader-member relationships, structured tasks, and either weak or strong position power. They do well when the task is unstructured but position power is strong. Also, they did well at the other end of the spectrum when the leader member relations were moderate to poor and the task was unstructured. Relationship oriented managers do better in all other situations. Thus, a given situation might call for a manager with a different style or a manager who could take on a different style for a different situation. Another aspect of the contingency model theory is that the leader-member relations, task structure, and position power dictate a leaders situational control. Leader-member relations are the amount of loyalty, dependability, and support that the leader receives from employees. It is a measure of how the manager perceives he or she and the group of employees are getting along together. In a favorable relationship the manager has a high task structure and is able to reward or punish employees without any problems. In an unfavorable relationship the task is usually unstructured and the leader possesses limited authority. Positioning power measures the amount of power or authority the manager perceives the organization has given him or her for the purpose of directing, rewarding, and punishing subordinates. Positioning power of managers depends on the taking away (favorable) or increasing (unfavorable) the decision-making power of employees. The task-motivated style leader experiences pride and satisfaction in the task accomplishment for the organization, while the relationship-motivated style seeks to build interpersonal relations and extend extra help for the team development in the organization. There is no good or bad leadership style. Each person has his or her own preferences for leadership. Task-motivated leaders are at their best when the group performs successfully such as achieving a new sales record or outperforming the major competitor. Relationship-oriented leaders are at their best when greater customer satisfaction is gained and a positive company image is established. Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership theory is based on the amount of direction (task behaviour) and amount of socio-emotional support (relationship behaviour) a leader must provide given the situation and the level of maturity of the followers. Task behaviour is the extent to which the leader engages in spelling out the duties and responsibilities to an individual or group. In task behaviour the leader engages in one-way communication. Relationship behaviour is the extent to which the leader engages in two-way or multi-way communications. This includes listening, facilitating, and supportive behaviours. In relationship behaviour the leader engages in two-way communication by providing socio-emotional support. Maturity is the willingness and ability of a person to take responsibility for directing his or her own behaviour. People tend to have varying degrees of maturity, depending on the specific task, function, or objective that a leader is attempting to accomplish through th eir efforts. To determine the appropriate leadership style to use in a given situation, the leader must first determine the maturity level of the followers in relation to the specific task that the leader is attempting to accomplish through the effort of the followers. As the level of followers maturity increases, the leader should begin to reduce his or her task behavior and increase relationship behaviour until the followers reach a moderate level of maturity. As the followers begin to move into an above average level of maturity, the leader should decrease not only task behaviour but also relationship behaviour. Houses Path-Goal Model The path-goal theory developed by Robert House is based on the expectancy theory of motivation. The managers job is viewed as coaching or guiding workers to choose the best paths for reaching their goals. Best is judged by the accompanying achievement of organizational goals. It is based on the precepts of goal setting theory and argues that leaders will have to engage in different types of leadership behavior depending on the nature and demands of the particular situation. It is the leaders job to assist followers in attaining goals and to provide direction and support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the organizations. A leaders behaviour is acceptable to subordinates when viewed as a source of satisfaction and motivational when need satisfaction is contingent on performance, and the leader facilitates, coaches and rewards effective performance. Path goal theory identifies achievement-oriented, directive, participative and supportive leadership styles. In achievement-oriented leadership, the leader sets challenging goals for followers, expects them to perform at their highest level, and shows confidence in their ability to meet this expectation. This style is appropriate when the follower suffers from lack of job challenge. In directive leadership, the leader lets followers know what is expected of them and tells them how to perform their tasks. This style is appropriate when the follower has an ambiguous job. Participative leadership involves leaders consulting with followers and asking for their suggestions before making a decision. This style is appropriate when the follower is using improper pr ocedures or is making poor decisions. In supportive leadership, the leader is friendly and approachable. He or she shows concern for followers psychological well being. This style is appropriate when the followers lack confidence. Path-Goal theory assumes that leaders are flexible and that they can change their style, as situations require. Effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers achieve their goals and make the journey easier by reducing roadblocks and pitfalls. Research demonstrates that employee performance and satisfaction are positively influenced when the leader compensates for the shortcomings in either the employee or the work setting. Leadership plays an important role in ones life. If one is a business owner he needs to be a leader in the field of your business. To be a successful leader, one must demonstrates some or all of the following characteristics: The ability to listen: Most leaders do too much talking but not enough listening. Feedbacks to a persons company services or products are important to that person as they demonstrate the customers needs. The ability to acknowledge and change: This is probably the hardest part to do. People often refuse to change. They believe their services or products are the best, which, theres nothing wrong with that. But when there are feedbacks coming from customers you have to listen, then acknowledge them and make changes to provide better customer service. The ability to form one-on-one relationships: People will need to be able to reach you. If you are just starting a business its especially important for you to be able to spend some time to get to know your customers, and/or employees. If you do that, over time, you will develop a strong trust between you and your customers. Successful people make sure they surround themselves with like-minded people. Im not saying millionaires should just ignore the poor. But you need to spend time to communicate with like-minded people. You cannot survive by yourself, and by interacting with others you can motivate others or give others a chance to motivate you. The ability to know yourself: It is very important to know what youre best at, and what your weaknesses are. A business is a team sport. Often one cannot handle all the aspects of a business and need to know when to seek for assistance. Successful people refuse to let other people dictate how they should do certain things. We are not living under someone elses shadow. We must take control and ownership of our lives and careers and never let go. The ability to communicate: Communication is really very important. Even if you are running a home online business and you use email as a communication channel. Down the road, you might want to do a video to promote your company. You might receive TV interviews. Its never too late to practice your presentation and communication skills. Successful people display high levels of optimism and confidence. They believe in themselves and they are not afraid of failures. They see every obstacle as a stepping-stone to their success. They turn challenges into motivators and become their advantages. People who are successful are the ones who are passionate at what they do. People who are successful are the ones who develop high levels of patience and dedication to see the results. http://ezinearticles.com/?Top-10-Characteristics-of-a-Successful-Leaderid=1552997 Characteristics of Successful and Effective Leadership It is not only inborn personality traits that are important but also styles and behaviours that a person learns. Strong autocratic leaders set their goals without considering the opinions of their followers, and then command their followers to execute their assigned tasks without question. Consultative leaders solicit the opinions and ideas of their followers in the goal-setting process but ultimately determine important goals and task assignments on their own. Democratic or participative leaders participate equally in the process with their followers and let the group make decisions. Extremely laid-back leaders, so called laissez-faire leaders, let the group take whatever action its members feel is necessary. A research team at the University of Michigan, inspired and led by Renis Likert, studied leadership for several years and identified two distinct styles, which they referred to as job-centered and employee-centered leadership styles. The job-centered leader closely supervises subordinates to make sure they perform their tasks following the specified procedures. This type of leader relies on reward, punishment, and legitimate power to influence the behaviour of followers. The employee-centered leader believes that creating a supportive work environment ultimately is the road to superior organizational performance. The employee-centered leader shows great concern about the employees emotional well-being, personal growth and development, and achievement. A leadership study group at Ohio State University, headed by Harris Fleishman, found similar contrasts in leadership style, which they referred to as initiating structure and consideration. The leadership style of initiating structure is similar to the job-centered leadership style, whereas consideration is similar to the employee-centered leadership style. It was the initial expectation of both research groups that a leader who could demonstrate both high initiating structure (job centered) and high consideration (employee centered) would be successful and effective in all circumstances. Many students of leadership today believe that there is no one best way to lead, believing instead that appropriate leadership styles vary depending on situations. Fred Fiedler (1967), for instance, believes that a task-oriented leadership style is appropriate when the situation is either extremely favorable or extremely unfavorable to the leader. A favorable situation exists when the relationship between the leader and followers is good, their tasks are well-defined, and the leader has strong power; when the opposite is true, an unfavorable situation exists. When the situation is moderately favorable, a people-oriented leadership style is appropriate. Some theorists suggest that situational factors—the type of task, nature of work groups, formal authority system, personality and maturity level of followers, experience, and ability of followers—are critical in determining the most effective leadership style. For instance, when followers are inexperienced and lack maturi ty and responsibility, the directive leadership style is effective; when followers are experienced and willing to take charge, supportive leadership is effective. (http://www.answers.com/topic/leadership) Experiment: Diffusion Coefficient of NaCl in water Experiment: Diffusion Coefficient of NaCl in water Introduction The purpose of this experiment is to determine the diffusion coefficient of NaCl in distilled water. Diffusion is an important property of many materials. Its importance is more significant than ever, where the transfer and distribution of materials is involved and quantitative values are needed to be determined. Results Measurement taken every 30 seconds, conductivity @ time 0 = 0.294mS Temperature ( °C) TIME (Minutes) Conductivity (S) Temperature ( °C) TIME (Minutes) Conductivity (S) 31.9 0.5 0.287 32 8 0.375 31.9 1 0.273 32 8.5 0.374 31.9 1.5 0.272 32.1 9 0.372 31.9 2 0.289 32.1 9.5 0.379 31.9 2.5 0.407 32.2 10 0.374 31.9 3 0.383 32.2 10.5 0.388 31.9 3.5 0.384 32.2 11 0.387 31.9 4 0.381 32.2 11.5 0.383 31.9 4.5 0.374 32.2 12 0.389 31.9 5 0.374 32.2 12.5 0.39 31.9 5.5 0.38 32.3 13 0.388 32 6 0.371 32.3 13.5 0.394 32 6.5 0.371 32.3 14 0.396 32 7 0.371 32.3 14.5 0.389 32 7.5 0.371 32.3 15 0.388 Temperature ( °C) TIME (Minutes) Conductivity (S) 32.4 16 0.41 32.4 17 0.418 32.5 18 0.42 32.5 19 0.432 32.6 20 0.441 32.6 21 0.446 32.7 22 0.447 32.7 23 0.449 32.7 24 0.447 32.8 25 0.445 32.8 26 0.456 32.9 27 0.465 32.9 28 0.467 33 29 0.467 33 30 0.463 Conductivity measurements taken every 1 minute. The results of the conductivity measured were then plotted against time on the following graph. The equation of a line is included as well as the coefficient of determination value. A trendline is fitted to the as a line of best fit as the data points are not exactly in linear form. Calculations Calculating the diffusivity of NaCl in water. The following equation will be used to calculate this, specifically it is the calculation of which is the diffusivity of A in B. ) dCa/dt is the diffusion coefficient and this value is the slope of conductivity Vs. time graph above. A = the area through which mass transfer occurs DAB = diffusion coefficient of A in B CA1 = the concentration of the saline solution inside the diffusion cell. CA2 = the concentration of salt in the bulk solution within the diffusion tank. Z = diffusion path length = 5 mm V= Diffusion tank volume The following calculation is of the total area of the pores in the diffusion cell where the NaCl will transfer into the water. A = Area of Diffusion Cell D = pore diameter = 1mm N = number of pores = 317  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A = 2.489 -10-4m2 Water was added to the diffusion tank to height of 170mm. This value along with the tanks cross sectional area (14.4 10-3 m2 were used to calculate the volume of the diffusion tank. Calculation of diffusion tank volume= 14.4 10-3 m2 0.170m = 2.448m3 3 values were chosen for the conductivity (concentration of salt in the water in the diffusion tank) from the graph for the calculation of DAB. 0.374 S/cm 0.410 S/cm 0.456 S/cm ) From the slope of the graph: A= 2.489 -10-4m2 mS mS Z = diffusion path length = 5 mm V= 2.448m3 Substituting each of the values into the above equation gives: Rearranging for :  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Average value of diffusivity of NaCl in water. Average Average = Questions To determine the accuracy of the measured value achieved in the experiment, a reference value is required. The reference value for the diffusivity of NaCl in water is 1.9910-9 m2/s   @ 37 °C.(1) Taking the temperatures of the 3 conductivity readings that were used in the calculation of   Ã‚   they were averaged to adjust against the reference value. 1. 0.374= 32.2 °C 2.0.410=32.4 °C 3. 0.456 =32.8 °C Average temp =32.5 °C Reference value temperature = 37 °C An approximate temperature coefficient value of 2%/ °C can be used to adjust the conductivity value of the measured value relative to the conductivity of the reference value. 2 4.5= 9 Adjusting the measured value to the same temperature of the reference value will give us = Adjusted Diffusivity Value Difference between 2 values = 1.675   10-6 A much higher rate of diffusion was achieved on this occasion compared the reference value of the rate of diffusion of NaCl in water. Discussion It is well known that a change in the temperature of a solution will result in the change of conductivity. An increase in temperature results in an increase in conductivity. The increase that is observed is as a result of a number of factors. Firstly, the increase in temperature can cause ionic compounds to split resulting in an increasing number of ions in the solution. So in this experiment the diffusivity of NaCl in H2O, the NaCl compound will break apart resulting in Na and Cl ions surrounded by H2O molecules. As the NaCl (in water it is classed as an electrolyte) dissolves (diffuses) charged ions (Na and Cl) are formed that can carry charge. Secondly, the increasing temperature of a solution can result in a lower viscosity. This in turn increases ion mobility throughout the H2O, which further increases the ability of the ions to carry the charge throughout the solution and therefore increases conductivity. These two factors highlight the significance that temperature plays in the diffusivity of a compound in a solution. Not including the variation of temperature would certainly have affected the final value. The conductivity of the stock solution was given as 189.6 mS at 22 °C. This value wasnt adjusted to a more accurate temperature at which the experiment was performed at which was approximately between 32-33 °C. The measured value from the calculation of may not be completely accurate. The majority of substances that dissolve in a solvent such as NaCl in water already have diffusion coefficients predetermined which allows one to compare the accuracy of the measurement against. Diffusion coefficients are measured at specific temperatures because of the fact that there value is temperature dependent. If the experiment was not carried out at the reference diffusion coefficients temperature then a temperature compensation method may be used, which was the case in this experiment, where the measured value was adjusted to the reference value. Compensation methods include both linear and non-linear methods to adjust the conductivity value attained with a %/ °C value. However these methods are not completely accurate and it is preferable that a conductivity measurement be taken at the same temperature as the reference value. This is particularly true where highly accurate measurements are required. In this experiment no variation in temperature was assumed. To incorporate a variation in temperature one could use a temperature compensation method but as Ive mentioned this isnt entirely accurate. These factors are only likely to have relatively minor inaccuracies. Comparing the two values there are several orders of magnitude of a difference. Several factors have influenced this including errors in the actual apparatus for measuring the conductivity in the diffusion cell as well as the errors that occurred during the experiment. It can be seen from the early measurements of conductivity that something went wrong with one or more of the apparatuses as erroneous results were produced.   From the 4th to the 5th measurement there is a large jump in conductivity. This large sudden variation in conductivity was caused by an air bubble blocking the conductivity meter. The air bubble present in the diffusion cell gave the false conductivity measurement. This resulted in an outlier in the conductivity versus time graph. A trendline was fitted to the graph to allow the slope to be calculated as the outliers present result in a non-linear graph. Despite this trendline this large variation certainly affected the final measured value. From the point of view of the apparatus it does certainly have some limitations.   The heating element is at one end of the device and so it doesnt give a consistent dispersion throughout the tank as the side of the tank nearest the element would be of a slightly higher temperature than the rest of the tank. It is difficult to say how much this would affect the diffusivity but it is something to consider. Conclusion A quantitative value for the diffusivity of NaCl in water was determined. The calculated measured value attained was compared against a reference value and a large discrepancy was observed between the two values. The reasons for the discrepancy from an experimental and theoretical point of view have being outlined in the discussion. References: Barron, J. and Ashton, C. (2008) The Effect of Temperature on Conductivity Measurement, County Clare, Ireland. Lide, D.R. and Staff, L.D.R. (2007) CRC handbook of chemistry and physics, 88th edition (Crc handbook of chemistry and physics). 88th edn. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.